Human Anatomical Models
Human anatomical models can be broadly categorized into three types based on their fabrication techniques, materials, and functions: traditional physical models, modern digital models, and modern physical models (including high-precision assembled models and patient-customized 3D printed models).
Traditional physical models, such as the "Anatomy Venus" prevalent in the 18th and 19th centuries, are characterized by: materials such as wax, wood, and plaster; life-size dimensions; high realism in craftsmanship and function; detachability; and a combination of artistic aesthetics and scientific precision. Their creation requires extensive reference to cadavers and involves meticulous molding, painting, and assembly processes. Historically, these models have been important tools for anatomical teaching and popular science education.
Modern digital models are virtual three-dimensional models constructed based on real human imaging data (such as CT and MRI scans). Its basic characteristics include: data foundation based on real human body data, with precise structure; model scale containing thousands to tens of thousands of independent 3D anatomical structures; interactive functions supporting operations such as model rotation, scaling, hiding, splitting, and transparent display; and often integrating extended modules such as motion analysis, acupuncture meridians, image tomography comparison, and AR learning for application in systemic anatomy, regional anatomy learning, and surgical simulation. Such models have become an important tool in modern medical education.
Modern physical models mainly include high-precision assembled models and patient-customized 3D printed models. High-precision assembled models (such as the 4D Master series) are usually scaled proportionally (e.g., 1:6), with detachable and assembleable parts, and vibrant colors, used for teaching and popular science. Patient-customized 3D printed models are printed 1:1 based on patient CT/MRI image data, and can be made of rigid plastic or flexible materials, realistically reflecting individual anatomical structures (such as tumor location and blood vessel orientation), used for preoperative planning, surgical simulation, and doctor-patient communication.
Applications
Human anatomical models have applications in multiple fields such as medical education, clinical practice, and public science popularization.
In the field of medical education, anatomical models are core teaching tools to help medical students and resident physicians learn about human anatomy, physiological functions, and surgical procedures. Modern digital anatomical models offer richer learning methods. For example, 3D anatomy software built based on real human data can be used to systematically learn anatomical knowledge and supports AR learning, simulated surgery, knowledge challenges, and other functions. Some 3D virtual models have haptic feedback functions, allowing users to practice medical skills such as injection in a safe environment without contact with real patients. In clinical practice, especially 3D printed anatomical models customized based on patient image data, have become important tools for preoperative planning, simulation exercises, and doctor-patient communication in complex surgeries. 3D printed anatomical models can be used to clarify the boundaries of bone tumors and the spatial relationships of surrounding complex anatomical structures, and can be used for preoperative planning and design and simulation of the surgical process [8]. Using 3D models helps to understand the spatial relationships of complex anatomical structures, thereby improving surgical accuracy, reducing complications, and shortening surgical time. It has been shown that 3D printed anatomical models are helpful for some surgical procedures, including head and neck surgery, complex facial or airway reconstruction, cardiac surgery, lung surgery, joint reconstruction, and tumor resection. Anatomical models have a long history in public science education and entertainment. Wax models of "Anatomy Venus" from the 18th and 19th centuries were exhibited in amusement parks, serving both educational and entertainment purposes. Modern models include assembly-style models for enthusiasts and teenagers, popularizing human anatomy through hands-on assembly.
Furthermore, anatomical models are used in traditional Chinese medicine and sports and rehabilitation. Some 3D anatomy software integrates meridian and acupoint models, which can assist in acupuncture teaching and research. In sports science, models can be used to analyze muscle movement trajectories and linkages in specific movements such as pull-ups, push-ups, and basketball shooting; in rehabilitation, they are used to locate pain trigger points.
